Lost and Found in Manila

For my final blog post for UW’s 2016 CHID Philippines study abroad program I am asked to reflect critically upon what I have done, what I learned, and how I interacted with others. For me I have to find a place within amid a level of internal conflict regarding my own identity and the situations I have found myself in over the past month. This makes it a bit hard for me to know exactly how objective I am being. As Feliciana Santos (or Tita Peachie), one of our elder luminaries and givers of wisdom on this trip, said to our group, “Your perception depends on your history.” With this is mind, and given that the nature of this final blog post is one that asks for our personal reflections, I ask you, dear reader, to look at my observations as my own, from my gut, my mind, and my heart.

A Pre-Trip Enoch

This trip and program has really shook me up and transformed me. There are many reasons for this. Our group dynamics were not the strongest and we had conflicts. This was no one’s fault in my mind. We come from a country where there are some great divisions about how people feel about what it means to be an American, and the concepts of race, identity, politics, and a myriad number of other societal issues. This played out in many ways relating to how our group members interacted with each other. The conflicts of personalities and identities really opened my mind to the different ways that people back home viewed themselves and others. This includes me. I feel that being removed from our comfortable milieu back home, and thrust into a situation that was alien for many of us, forced us to look at our lives, and the beliefs and identities that we carry with us, in a manner which we do not normally do in the States. One could say that our group dynamics here were a microcosm of the greater societal macrocosm that is the collective life and experiences of people in the United States. I am by no means saying that there is one “American Experience”. In fact that very notion is one that was seriously challenged and, in my mind, completely broken down and obliterated by the curriculum in this program.

Graph Truth

Another reality that really hit me at my core was the glaring inequity that exists in this world. This exists on many levels and is, in many ways, relative. In Manila we have the super-rich elites and the extremely poor of Baseco. In turn you can flip this to an examination of global issues of inequity. In the United States I am pretty darn poor and I come from a family that was poor when I was young. But here I am extremely privileged economically. My money goes very far here. This is this is result of my country’s privileged status and position in the modern global-capitalist economy. Both my personal as well as my country’s position are not due to merit or an earned status as we like to believe. They are, in part, a result of a history of exploitation and colonization of others and an unearned “luck-of-the-draw” positionality in history and geography. In addition to these privileges I also have what I like think of as a “Meta-Privilege”. This is the situation I find myself in wherein I have, due to my economic, educational, and class privileges, the ability to explore my situation, observations, and emotions surrounding all of this at my own leisure. I have the privilege of existing in a state of guilt, pride, or any other non-productive state of self-involved emotion if I so chose to. Other people in other situations do not have that freedom due to aspects of their lives that due not grant this “Meta-Privilege”. I deeply hope and firmly believe that I will not fall in to such self-serving traps as those emotions and can instead grow into a better citizen of the world as I continue past this program.

This One Simply Had to be Added, Just Because...

This leads me directly to the next major aspect of my personal introspection and reflection that I feel is necessary at this juncture. What I am I going to do with my new found knowledge about others and the world? How am I going to interact differently with the systems at play in the world and the people I come into contact with now that I have shed some of my outdated belief systems and gained new insights? I do not yet have full answers to these questions. But I think I have a start. I want to work for more equity in this world. I want to interact with people in a way which recognizes everyone’s experience and identity as valid even if I do not agree with their “truths”. I feel that education is a vital component and my privileged position in higher education needs to be utilized to the best of my ability. How to go about this in a real-world manner, long term, is a tough question. I feel that I am still new to some of my feelings and insights I have gained here so even if I do not currently have answers to these questions I am in a good place from which to grow. I feel that not knowing all the answers and being willing to grow, progress, and learn is the first step in reaching some of the goals I have towards interacting with the world and other people in the positive and productive ways mentioned. A very real and very serious consideration I feel I need to explore is how to not forget the insights and learning moments I have been exposed to in this program.

Dr. Vicente Breaking it Down, for Y'all.

The next major area to explore in this blog is how I interacted with others in the groups in which I worked during this program. I feel that both of the groups in which I worked functioned pretty well considering some of the ways in which the main group had strained interactions. The first group I was in was composed of myself, Andrés Coca, Gabby Humkey, and Christina Price.We read, discussed, and gave a presentation on the following articles. They were “The Archaeology of Pericolonialism: Responses of the unconquered to Spanish Conquest and Colonialism in Ifugao, Philippines” (Acabado, 2016), “Bagiuo between two wars: The creation and destruction of a summer capital” (Alcantra, 2002), “Bagiuo Graffiti” (Bose, 2002), “White love: Census and melodrama in the U.S. colonization of the Philippines” (Rafael, 2000), and “Colonial domesticity: Engendering race at the edge of empire” (Rafael, 2000). We divided the work and readings as evenly as possible and I feel that all members contributed. We all worked on our own part of the PowerPoint presentation and I feel that voices and opinions were heard and respected. In my mind we did not really have any major conflicts and most of the decisions were made by consensus. I felt we worked well together especially considering we had to put together our presentation late at night after a long and arduous road trip. I personally benefited from the connections I made with my group members through this process and I feel that the this benefited my interactions with them throughout the rest of the program.

Inequity on Display, Via the Disney Store, Manila 

  
The next group I worked with consisted of myself, Sarah Clark, Aedan Roberts, and Ariel Corpus Delos Santos. This group examined tourism and some of the issues surrounding it such as sex tourism, environmental degradation, and the displacement of people. We, as a group, had more conflicts on the surface but I feel they were handled well, all in all. We ran into issues such as technical difficulties which contributed to the strain we all felt, and additionally a level of exhaustion we all felt by this point in the program. I feel very close to all the members and feel that we really formed a long term bond. We all brought something unique to the table. Sarah had a well-researched historical perspective. Aaden brought genuine emotion and a beautiful poem to the table. Ariel was really balanced in her perspective regarding tourism and also had an amazing seat-of-the-pants spoken word piece. I solved many of our technical difficulties, conducted the outside research for additional media, facts, and additional data, and conducted many interviews to explore the effects that tourism has on real people in the trenches of the industry.

Graph Truth, cont.

  
The final piece of this blog is the tying of my observations, feelings, and reflections to the course readings and some of the theses and the concepts therein. A piece that I feel has a deep connection to the first area I explore in this post is the paper, “Knowledge construction, transformative academic knowledge, and Filipino American identity and experience” (Andresen, 2012). In it Andresen (2002) explores identity construction, transformative knowledge, and the importance of a multicultural education. These are all themes and topics which influenced my feelings, thoughts, and experiences in this program. While many of the specifics were related to the Filipino-American students’ experience I feel that there was much that a White student could take away from it and many of the ideas and topics I feel informed and directed some of my own feelings related to my own identity reconstruction during this trip. In addition Andresen (2012, p. 82) built upon the concepts of Banks (1996) regarding transformative academic knowledge which “consists of concepts, paradigms, themes, and explanations that challenge mainstream academic knowledge and that expand the historical and literary canon” (Banks, 1996, p. 16). For me the entire experience here was firmly in the camp of a transformative academic experience as well as an opportunity to examine and restructure my own identity internally and in relation to others in the world around me.

Modern Global Capitalism and Colonial Mentality, in a Nutshell

The second piece that is central to the next area I explored is “White privilege and male privilege: A personal account of coming to see correspondences through work in women’s studies” (McIntosh, 1988). In this piece McIntosh (1988) examined the ways in which she encountered White Privilege day to day in her life as well very clear explanation of White Privilege in the way that we, in an academic setting, understand it today. Throughout my experience here I tried to examine my own privileges on multiple levels and look at the ways in which they shaped my views about myself, others, and the world around me. I am by no means saying that I did a perfect job of this but if one revisits my earlier posts on this blog I feel it will be clear that this was a major area of personal as well as academic thought for me. If I were to put my feelings related to this this topic in layperson’s terms it would go something like this, “Privilege of many types exist in the modern world and it is vital for us to examine, come to terms with, and hopefully voluntarily relinquish them”. I have privilege in this world. How will I use it? Why do I have it? Can this state of affairs be changed? This are all concepts that I dealt with during my experience here.

When You Break Your Mental Chains You are Free to Open New Doors 

The final concepts I want is look at here are explored in Viola’s “Blue Scholarship to Challenge the Miseducation of the Filipino” (2006). These are directly related to what I will do with the transformative academic experiences and restructuring of my personal identity construction that I have had the privilege of experiencing in this program. I would like to point out that much of what Viola (2006) talked about related to what a Filipino-American’s experience of hip-hop can be. I however, as a white person, can still learn much from this article. This once again goes back to a main underling core concept for me. That is that a multicultural education is valuable and can help us understand systems at play in the world as well as each other better. The last statement is a side note, albeit a very important one, in relation to what I now want to examine in regards to the correlations between Viola’s (2006) article and my reflections on what I want to do with what I have gained from this program in the future.

Through Art Modern Filipinos are Breaking Those Chains

Viola spoke several times to the importance of action on the part of academics and intellectuals. I do not want to claim either of these titles in their entirety but I think that I, in some manner, am serving both of these roles to some extent in the present. I hope to continue to expand upon my role as both in the future. I am engaged in higher education. I do plan on continuing my education to at least a Master’s level and, if I don’t go broke, hopefully a PHD. This places me in the world of academia to some extent, and if I continue to write and be self-reflective in that process, I see myself as being, in part, an intellectual as well. I want to be clear here that I am seeing this as a responsibility and not some badge of pride or merit. Ironically enough both of these statuses both carry privilege. I know that this is very complex and perhaps slightly convoluted way to look this topic but then again how we navigate our roles in life as well as our identities is also quite complicated. There is a statement that Viola cited that I feel is important in regards to the topics at hand, “We need to be able to speak our struggle not just in abstract terms, but in ways that touch hearts and minds. Thus, we must…engage in finding ways of recognizing points of commonality, of mutual interest, where our own struggle for liberation intersects with the struggles of others, where we can begin to transcend the limitations of what is, in the struggle for what could be…[This struggle] must take place not only on the picket line or protest march, but also in the schools, places of worship, libraries, shop floors, and corporate offices – in every venue where people come together to learn, to labor, and to love” (McLaren, 2005, as cited in Viola, 1996, p.12).

Finally I wish to close with a haiku. Simple and short, I feel that this is a true and heartfelt summary of my experiences.

My Identity,

Lost and Found in Manila,

I will carry home.

~Daniel Enoch Tobin, Manila, 2016

References

Acabado, S. (2016). The Archaeology of Pericolonialism: Responses of the unconquered to Spanish Conquest and Colonialism in Ifugao, Philippines. International History Archeology. Springer Media: New York.

Andresen, T. (2012). Knowledge construction, transformative academic knowledge, and Filipino American identity and experience, In E. Bonus & D. Maramba, (Eds.) The “other” students: Filipino Americans, education, and power. (pp. 65-87). Charlotte, NC: IAP.

Alcantra, E.R. (2002) Bagiuo between two wars: The creation and destruction of a summer capital. In Shaw, A.V. & Francia, L.H. Vestiges of war. (pp. 207-223). New York: New York Press.

Banks, J. (1996). Multicultural education, transformative knowledge, and action : Historical and contemporary perspectives (Multicultural education series (New York, N.Y.)). New York: Teachers College Press.

Bose, S. (2002). Bagiuo Graffiti. In A.V. Shaw & L.H Francia, Vestiges of war. (pp. 260-67). New York: New York Press.

McIntosh, P. (1988). White privilege and male privilege: A personal account of coming to see correspondences through work in women’s studies. In K. Tupper, Introduction to women’s studies: Women 200 (2nd ed.) (pp. 62-71). New York: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Rafael, V. (2000). White love: Census and melodrama in the U.S. colonization of the Philippines. In White love and other events in Filipino history. (pp.19-52). Durham, NC: Duke University Press.

 Rafael, V. (2000). Colonial domesticity: Engendering race at the edge of empire, 1899-1912. In White love and other events in Filipino history. (pp. 52.76). Durham, NC: Duke University Press.

Viola, M. (2006). Blue Scholarship to challenge the miseducation of the Filipino. Journal for Critical Education Policy. 4 (2).

Looking to the Future

I have learned so much on this trip, more than I envisioned for such a relatively short term. Prior to this study abroad program, I admit that my knowledge of the Philippines was minimal; I knew that it was an archipelago in the Pacific that had been occupied by the United States in the early 20^th century. My Eurocentric education taught me nothing about the brutality and exploitation propagated by the United States in this region, although I had some suspicions simply because imperialism and conquest are inherently demoralizing and dehumanizing phenomena. In this paper I will explore the factors that contributed to American occupation of the Philippines and the ramifications that continue to plague Filipinos and Filipino Americans.

Towards the end of Spanish occupation in the Philippines in the late 19^th century, a group emerged known as the Ilustrados. According to Reynaldo Ileto (1998) in his article, The Philippine-American War: Friendship and forgetting, they were a group of educated, Filipino elite who were working towards political reform so that they would be represented in the local and national Spanish government (p. 4). Their political goal was unmet, however, Filipinos were able to achieve short-lived independence, from Spain in 1898. Unbeknownst to them, the United States had secretly purchased the archipelago from Spain for 25 million dollars. Ultimately, the goals of the Ilustrados were met during American colonial rule, political representation, but it is much more convoluted than this (Ileto, 1998, p. 3).

The United States used the Benevolent Assimilation Proclamation in 1901, to institute a “friendship” between the two nations while concealing their true imperialist endeavors (Zinn, 2008). Additionally, the United States wanted to accomplish more than their Spanish predecessors, in terms of civilizing Filipinos and unifying them as a nation. According to Rafael (2000) in his book White Love and other events in Filipino history, “the re-formation of natives as colonial subjects required that they become visible and therefore accessible to those charged with their supervision” (p.23). This was accomplished first by instituting a census in 1903, to categorize and organize colonial subjects (Rafael 2000). Furthermore, they established a public education system, with English as the primary language to teach generation after generation of Filipinos about the benevolent, special relationship that they have with the United States. In this historical fairytale, the Spanish and Japanese are the perpetrators of devastation to Filipino people and the United States the hero, rescuing them from their captors and setting them free.

Historical revisionism is still infecting Filipino education today. Not only have generations forgotten about their past struggles with colonizers, but they have forgotten about the internal struggles they’ve had within their own political system. This colonial mentality worked to keep the American elite capitalizing and prospering at the expense of the Filipino people and it presently works to keep Filipino elite accumulating wealth while the masses stay destitute. From our lecture with Susan Quimpo (2016), she illuminated that an entire generation had forgotten about the terror of the Martial Law during the Marcos Regime. This is problematic because there are many similarities between his tactics and those of newly elected President Duterte. However, if no one remembers life under martial law, they are more susceptible to blindly supporting Duterte and his populist rhetoric. Quimpo, a life long activist, has been working tirelessly to educate the younger generation on the atrocities of martial law and working to implement a curriculum, which currently doesn’t exist, on the years during martial law in the Philippines (Quimpo 2016). 

According to Third Andresen (2012), in his article Knowledge Construction, Transformative Academic Knowledge and Filipino American Identity and Experience the same revisionism is going on in the education system in the United States. Filipino American’s are not receiving a Eurocentric education that marginalizes them and continues to promote assimilation and perpetuates colonial mentality (Andresen, 2012, p. 67). According to Michael Viola (2006) in his article, Hip-Hop and Critical Revolutionary Pedagogy: Blue Scholarship to Challenge the “Miseducation of the Filipino,” the United States senate passed the No Child Left in 2001 Act, which created even more barriers to competent multicultural education and to a prosperous life for youth of color after high school (p. 9). This piece of legislation requires standardized testing, which, “are not merely benign measurements of student achievement but also methods for exclusion” (Viola, 2006, p. 11). The no child left behind, leaves an entire population of youth of color vulnerable to unemployment and heavy recruitment by the armed forces, and no other viable alternatives for economic viability. In fact, Viola eludes that this neo-liberal policy intensifies economic inequality while simultaneously legitimizing them (Viola, 2006, p. 11).

The driving force behind the miseducation of Filipinos and Filipino Americans aside from American imperialism is the capitalism. Viola argues that, “systems of education in a capitalist based society serve the interests of the ruling elite and assist in making an unjust social order appear as “common sense””(p. 3). This is what I witnessed time and time again during my conversations with locals about their colonial past or present. There was always a logical answer for why American occupation or more recently, Duterte’s extrajudicial killings were justified which left me baffled.

As I previously stated, prior to this trip I had very little knowledge of the history of the region and continued ramifications of the American occupation. I used to think that effective communication was enough to unite people and was powerful enough to ignite socio-political change. I feel so naive. After learning about the global systemic oppression of peoples, the structured stratification of wealth and the miseducation and marginalization of generations of people of color, I am left wondering, what can be done to free millions of people from colonial mentality and economic inequality? What can I do?

What I’ve learned from Andresen (2012) and Viola (2006), is that it is the responsibility of those with higher education, myself included, to reach out and rebuild communities. Andresen (2012) suggests that implementation of a multicultural curriculum will give Filipino Americans and other students of color visibility in an otherwise Eurocentric social order. This will hopefully help them to feel represented in their schools as well as foster an appreciation for their own cultures and communities. Viola (2006) declares that it is the responsibility of those with higher education to promote critical consciousness is the masses, and not just sit idly by while others suffer injustice. According to Viola (2006), Gramsci states that,

“The…new intellectual can no longer consist in eloquence, which is an exterior and momentary mover of feelings and passions, but in active participation in practical life, as constructor, organizer, ‘permanent persuader,’ and not just a simple orator” (p. 14).

What have I learned? I need to be more critical. I need to be braver. I need to speak up for what I believe in. I need to be more active in my community. I need to seek out ways to reform and insight change. I need to use my education for good, to transform.

I really enjoyed working with the classmates on our group presentations. I always enjoy witnessing how others translate the material and transform it into creative, engaging, unique and insightful conceptions. I was in the last group, and I think we communicated very well, and all had the same mission for out presentation; that it go smoothly and foster a learning environment and not dissolve into conflict and hurt feelings. Within my group, there were no real conflicts, just differences in opinions that were resolved based on group majority and everyone was in consensus about it. We held fast to our commitment and I think we all may have even had a little fun in the process in spite of sleep deprivation!

I think being in a learning community is a really amazing way to study and it is actual my preference as opposed to large, sterile lecture halls. Small cohorts allow for the opportunity to engage more intimately with the subject material through discussions and learning opportunities with other members. Community learning benefits aside, as with any social situation, conflicts are bound to arise and in our case they most certainly did. It’s hard to really pinpoint the cause of the conflict, but I would say that it was twofold: one stemming from communication dynamics within the classroom itself and the other from interpersonal interactions. From my observations, it appeared that these two separate conflicts actually ignited each other, as we were together most of the time, and it seemed to really influence the overall group dynamic and our ability to function as a unit effectively. I don’t believe the conflicts within our group were every really resolved, rather pushed under the rug, which was unfortunate but not for lack of trying. For me personally, it was an opportunity, albeit difficult, to understand the different experiences and conflicts others were having with their identity and I was also confronted with my own conflicts as well.

References

Andresen, T. (2012). Knowledge construction, transformative academic knowledge, and Filipino American identity and experience, In E. Bonus and D. Maramba (Eds.) The “other” students: Filipino Americans, education and power. (pp. 65-87). Charlotte, NC: IAP.

Ileto, R.C. (1998). The Philippine-American War, Friendship and Forgetting. In Shaw, A.V. & Francia, L.H. Vestiges of war. (pp. 3-21). New York: New York Press.

Quimpo, S.  (2016). Ex-Detainees: Martial Law. Presentation. University of the Philippines

Rafael, V. (2000). White love: Census and melodrama in the U.S. colonization of the Philippines. In White Love and other events in Filipino history. (pp. 19-52). Durham, NC: Duke University Press.

Viola, M. (2006). Blue Scholarship to challenge the miseducation of the Filipino. Journal for Critical Education Policy. 4 (2).

Zinn, N. (2008). Invasion of the Philippines. In A people’s history of American empire. (pp. 53-72). NY: Metropolitan Books.

Imperialistic Powers: From Colonialism to Neocolonialism

Imperialistic Powers: From Colonialism to Neocolonialism

Nicole Harris

University of Washington

August 19, 2016

Learning is a constant process and once we feel that we are experts on a particular subject, we have allowed ourselves to cap out. The purposes of taking this course were for me to gain a deeper understanding of colonialism, the effects on the psyche of the colonized and have the opportunity to have a global comparison between my own experiences, the racial and colonial history of our country and the effects that it has had on the Philippines. My goal in this final analysis is to show how some of the overarching themes of colonial mentality, (mis)education, knowledge construction and identity are governed by a hierarchy of imperialist power through white privilege and supremacy. 

1914

My understanding of colonialism when I started this program was through the forms of education, religion and geography. Throughout the educational course this recurring theme continued to cycle but formed even deeper critique. The learning curve for me was when I realized that colonialism through occupation had deeper motive and even though the U.S.A. and other colonizers have physically left, we/they have transformed our power through capital wealth. Through the opportunities of the readings and field experience I was able to accumulate further knowledge and critical analysis of the U.S.A. occupation of the Philippines.

 Festinger's (1957) cognitive dissonance theory suggests that we have an inner drive to hold all our attitudes and beliefs in harmony and avoid disharmony or dissonance (Mcleod, 2014). My thoughts on the colonized through a colonial mentality has definitely changed as I was able to see the depth that it has achieved. I not only saw it as an issue facing Filipinos here in the Philippines, I discovered that it incorporates and imprisons the minds of Filipino Americans as well as others on a global scale and even people of color in our study abroad group.  As I self-reflect, I must ask if I myself am biased through my knowledge seeking that I may too be a victim of colonial mentality and don’t realize it?

My colleagues and I, within our respective group, collaborated on a project focusing on colonial mentality and the implications on Filipino and Filipino American identity. What we discovered throughout our research and interviews was how deep colonial debt really is, the tolerance of oppression (David & Okazaki, 2006, pg 242) and the effects that is having on the mental health as well as the economy here in the Philippines. Collectively we were able to create a group project that reflected our own experiences with the systems of power that continue to oppress people economically, emotionally and academically in the Philippines.

When we focused on knowledge construction we understand that it “reflects the power and social relationships within society” (Banks, 1996, pg 16). Through (mis)education there is a diluted sense of reality, forgetfulness and forgiveness (as the bible and education instructs as to do). Constantino warned of this as he stated “the most effective means of subjugating a people is to capture their minds” (Constantino, 1982, pg 178). Unfortunately this forgetfulness, cognitive dissonance and colonial mentality has allowed the continuance of economic exploitation that has been happening since occupation.

The worst part is the constant social expectation and internalized belief that has been primed and primped through (mis)education of Filipinos to keep a smile on their face, continue dancing and bend like a bamboo. At some point the bamboo has got to break and the only solution to this is decolonizing the mind and severing ties with imperialistic countries, companies and men that are white faced and greedy for green (money). 

According to the New World Encyclopedia, neocolonialism is a term used by post-colonial critics of developed countries' involvement in the developing world (Tanabe, 2014). Following the Marcos regime, the country has been in debt to the U.S.A. as well as other countries and financial corporations such as the World Bank and IMF. We still have our hand in the cookie jar with a happy smiling Filipino to say thank you sir, thank you ma’am.

            I started this course from a simple understanding of colonialism being just mere physical occupation of land and consumption to a deeper understanding of how colonialism operates as an imperialistic power gaining capital generating wealth through investment that I now know is neocolonialism. The Filipino people have been blindfolded (ironically so is the statue of Liberty) and blindsided in attempts to keep them sitting in the dark (Twain, 2002) so we can continue to rob them while getting fat everyday. The juxtaposition of poverty with high rise condos, hotels and American owned companies is quite disgusting. I can’t help but to ask, how can people not see the huge disparity? Tupac Shakur knew and saw it as shown in the video embedded:

https://youtu.be/bFv-cISaqkw?list=RDnS_1ZUKBK6w  Original interview retrieved from

http://weblog.liberatormagazine.com/2006/09/tupac-lost-interview.html

           
 I end this course with a lingering question of how do we put an end to imperialist powers that began as colonialism and has now full blown manifested in neocolonialism? What are the solutions to decolonzing the mind and re-educating so there is a paradigm shift in the way that we think, the way that we act and treat eachother? When are white men (and women) going to be held accountable for the atrocities that they have done? When does forgetting and friendship become resistance and reflection through social action and demanding of equal treatment? I believe that only through a complete mental and economic revolution will this ever be achieved. 

            We must fight the power, the ones who hold “truth” and the key to access- academic and economic wealth. The themes and theories that are discusses are highly intertwined and interdependent and together as Brown and Black folk we must dismantle the system, the house and the masters and replace them with our own. Power to the People that are oppressed.

References

Andrew (Photograph). (2010). World empires and colonies in 1914, just before the First World

War. (Photograph). Retrieved from

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:World_1914_empires_colonies_territory.PNG

Banks, J.A. (1996). Multicultural education, transformative knowledge, and action. New York:

Teachers College Press.

BlackHistoryStudies. (Photograph). (2014). Frantz Fanon on Cognitive Dissonance.

(Photograph). Retrieved from  https://twitter.com/blkhiststudies/status/419901097101512704

Constantino, R. (1982). Miseducation of Filipinos. In I In A.V. Shaw & L.H Francia, Vestiges of 

war. (pp. 177-192). New York: New York Press.

David, E.J.R., & Okazaki, S. (2006). The Colonial Mentality Scale (CMS) for Filipino

Americans: Scale construction and psychological implications: A review and recommendation. Journal of Counseling Psychology 53 (1), pp. 241-252.

McLeod, S. A. (Photograph). (2014). Cognitive Dissonance. Retrieved from

www.simplypsychology.org/cognitive-dissonance.html

Murphy, C. (Photograph). (2011). Neocolonialism. (Photograph) Retrieved from

            https://murphymla.voices.wooster.edu/neocolonialism/

Snaresallday. (2012, Jul. 22). Krazy: Remix Instrumental, 2Pac: The Lost Interview. [Video file].

Retrieved

https://youtu.be/bFv-cISaqkw?list=RDnS_1ZUKBK6w

Original interview retrieved from

http://weblog.liberatormagazine.com/2006/09/tupac-lost-interview.html

Tsiagalakis, G. (Photograph). (2014). Colonial Empires in 1800. (Photograph), Retrieved from

https://www.boundless.com/sociology/textbooks/boundless-sociology-textbook/global-stratification-and-inequality-8/stratification-in-the-world-system-69/colonialism-and-neocolonialism-406-10460/

Tanabe, R. (2014, December 26). Neocolonialism. New World Encyclopedia. Retrieved 19:47,

August 19, 2016 from http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/p/index.php?title=Neocolonialism&oldid=986053

Twain, M. (2002). To the person sitting in darkness. In Shaw, A.V. & Francia, L.H.

                        Vestiges of war. (pp. 57-68). New York: New York Press.